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Scanning of an object or environment to collect data on its shape

Making a 3D-model of a Viking chugalug buckle using a manus held VIUscan 3D light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation scanner.

3D scanning is the procedure of analyzing a real-world object or surroundings to collect data on its shape and possibly its advent (e.one thousand. colour). The collected data can then be used to construct digital 3D models.

A 3D scanner can exist based on many dissimilar technologies, each with its own limitations, advantages and costs. Many limitations in the kind of objects that tin can be digitised are still present. For case, optical applied science may run into many difficulties with dark, shiny, reflective or transparent objects. For example, industrial computed tomography scanning, structured-light 3D scanners, LiDAR and Time Of Flight 3D Scanners can be used to construct digital 3D models, without destructive testing.

Collected 3D data is useful for a broad variety of applications. These devices are used extensively by the entertainment industry in the production of movies and video games, including virtual reality. Other common applications of this engineering include augmented reality,[i] move capture,[ii] [3] gesture recognition,[four] robotic mapping,[5] industrial design, orthotics and prosthetics,[6] opposite engineering science and prototyping, quality control/inspection and the digitization of cultural artifacts.[7]

Functionality [edit]

The purpose of a 3D scanner is commonly to create a 3D model. This 3D model consists of a polygon mesh or point cloud of geometric samples on the surface of the discipline. These points tin then be used to extrapolate the shape of the subject (a process called reconstruction). If color data is nerveless at each point, then the colours or textures on the surface of the bailiwick can also be determined.

3D scanners share several traits with cameras. Like most cameras, they have a cone-similar field of view, and similar cameras, they can simply collect information near surfaces that are non obscured. While a photographic camera collects color data about surfaces within its field of view, a 3D scanner collects distance information about surfaces within its field of view. The "picture" produced by a 3D scanner describes the distance to a surface at each point in the picture. This allows the three dimensional position of each point in the moving picture to be identified.

In some situations, a single browse will non produce a complete model of the subject. Multiple scans, from different directions are usually helpful to obtain information almost all sides of the subject. These scans have to be brought into a common reference system, a procedure that is usually called alignment or registration, then merged to create a consummate 3D model. This whole process, going from the single range map to the whole model, is usually known as the 3D scanning pipeline.[8] [9] [10] [xi] [12]

Engineering science [edit]

There are a variety of technologies for digitally acquiring the shape of a 3D object. The techniques work with most or all sensor types including optical, acoustic, laser scanning,[13] radar, thermal,[fourteen] and seismic.[15] [sixteen] A well established nomenclature[17] divides them into two types: contact and not-contact. Non-contact solutions can be farther divided into two main categories, agile and passive. There are a diversity of technologies that fall under each of these categories.

Contact [edit]

Contact 3D scanners probe the subject through physical touch, while the object is in contact with or resting on a precision flat surface plate, footing and polished to a specific maximum of surface roughness. Where the object to be scanned is non flat or can not rest stably on a apartment surface, it is supported and held firmly in place by a fixture.

The scanner mechanism may take three different forms:

  • A carriage arrangement with rigid arms held tightly in perpendicular relationship and each centrality gliding along a track. Such systems piece of work best with flat profile shapes or simple convex curved surfaces.
  • An articulated arm with rigid basic and high precision athwart sensors. The location of the end of the arm involves complex math calculating the wrist rotation bending and hinge bending of each joint. This is ideal for probing into crevasses and interior spaces with a small oral cavity opening.
  • A combination of both methods may exist used, such as an articulated arm suspended from a traveling wagon, for mapping large objects with interior cavities or overlapping surfaces.

A CMM (coordinate measuring machine) is an example of a contact 3D scanner. It is used mostly in manufacturing and can be very precise. The disadvantage of CMMs though, is that it requires contact with the object being scanned. Thus, the human activity of scanning the object might change or damage it. This fact is very significant when scanning delicate or valuable objects such as historical artifacts. The other disadvantage of CMMs is that they are relatively slow compared to the other scanning methods. Physically moving the arm that the probe is mounted on can be very slow and the fastest CMMs can only operate on a few hundred hertz. In dissimilarity, an optical system like a laser scanner can operate from 10 to 500 kHz.[eighteen]

Other examples are the hand driven bear on probes used to digitise clay models in computer animation industry.

Non-contact active [edit]

Active scanners emit some kind of radiation or light and notice its reflection or radiation passing through object in order to probe an object or environment. Possible types of emissions used include light, ultrasound or x-ray.

Time-of-flight [edit]

This lidar scanner may be used to browse buildings, stone formations, etc., to produce a 3D model. The lidar tin can aim its laser beam in a broad range: its head rotates horizontally, a mirror flips vertically. The light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation beam is used to measure the distance to the kickoff object on its path.

The time-of-flight 3D light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation scanner is an active scanner that uses laser light to probe the subject. At the eye of this type of scanner is a fourth dimension-of-flight light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation range finder. The light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation range finder finds the distance of a surface past timing the round-trip fourth dimension of a pulse of light. A laser is used to emit a pulse of light and the amount of time before the reflected light is seen by a detector is measured. Since the speed of light c {\displaystyle c} is known, the circular-trip time determines the travel altitude of the low-cal, which is twice the altitude between the scanner and the surface. If t {\displaystyle t} is the round-trip time, then altitude is equal to c ⋅ t / 2 {\displaystyle \textstyle c\!\cdot \!t/ii} . The accurateness of a time-of-flight 3D laser scanner depends on how precisely nosotros tin can measure out the t {\displaystyle t} time: 3.iii picoseconds (approx.) is the fourth dimension taken for light to travel one millimetre.

The laser range finder but detects the distance of i indicate in its management of view. Thus, the scanner scans its entire field of view one point at a time by changing the range finder's direction of view to scan different points. The view direction of the light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation range finder can be inverse either by rotating the range finder itself, or past using a system of rotating mirrors. The latter method is commonly used because mirrors are much lighter and tin thus exist rotated much faster and with greater accurateness. Typical time-of-flight 3D laser scanners can mensurate the altitude of 10,000~100,000 points every second.

Time-of-flight devices are as well available in a 2nd configuration. This is referred to as a time-of-flying camera.[19]

Triangulation [edit]

Principle of a light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation triangulation sensor. Ii object positions are shown.

Triangulation based 3D light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation scanners are also active scanners that use laser light to probe the environment. With respect to time-of-flight 3D laser scanner the triangulation laser shines a laser on the subject and exploits a camera to look for the location of the laser dot. Depending on how far away the light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation strikes a surface, the laser dot appears at unlike places in the photographic camera'south field of view. This technique is called triangulation because the light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation dot, the camera and the laser emitter form a triangle. The length of one side of the triangle, the distance between the photographic camera and the laser emitter is known. The angle of the laser emitter corner is also known. The angle of the camera corner can be determined by looking at the location of the laser dot in the camera's field of view. These 3 pieces of information fully determine the shape and size of the triangle and give the location of the light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation dot corner of the triangle.[20] In well-nigh cases a light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation stripe, instead of a single light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation dot, is swept across the object to speed upwardly the acquisition process. The National Inquiry Council of Canada was among the outset institutes to develop the triangulation based light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation scanning technology in 1978.[21]

Strengths and weaknesses [edit]

Time-of-flight and triangulation range finders each have strengths and weaknesses that make them suitable for unlike situations. The advantage of time-of-flying range finders is that they are capable of operating over very long distances, on the guild of kilometres. These scanners are thus suitable for scanning big structures similar buildings or geographic features. The disadvantage of time-of-flight range finders is their accurateness. Due to the loftier speed of lite, timing the round-trip time is hard and the accuracy of the altitude measurement is relatively depression, on the order of millimetres.

Triangulation range finders are exactly the opposite. They have a limited range of some meters, just their accuracy is relatively loftier. The accuracy of triangulation range finders is on the order of tens of micrometers.

Time-of-flight scanners' accuracy can be lost when the laser hits the edge of an object considering the information that is sent back to the scanner is from two dissimilar locations for one light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation pulse. The coordinate relative to the scanner's position for a point that has hit the edge of an object will be calculated based on an average and therefore volition put the point in the incorrect identify. When using a high resolution browse on an object the chances of the axle hitting an border are increased and the resulting information will testify noise just behind the edges of the object. Scanners with a smaller axle width will help to solve this problem but will be express past range equally the beam width will increase over distance. Software can as well help by determining that the first object to be hitting by the laser axle should cancel out the second.

At a rate of 10,000 sample points per second, low resolution scans can have less than a second, but high resolution scans, requiring millions of samples, can take minutes for some fourth dimension-of-flight scanners. The problem this creates is distortion from motility. Since each point is sampled at a different time, any move in the subject or the scanner will distort the collected data. Thus, it is usually necessary to mount both the subject and the scanner on stable platforms and minimise vibration. Using these scanners to scan objects in motion is very difficult.

Recently, there has been research on compensating for distortion from small-scale amounts of vibration[22] and distortions due to motion and/or rotation.[23]

Short-range laser scanners can't usually encompass a depth of field more than than 1 meter.[24] When scanning in one position for any length of fourth dimension slight movement can occur in the scanner position due to changes in temperature. If the scanner is set on a tripod and there is strong sunlight on i side of the scanner then that side of the tripod volition aggrandize and slowly distort the browse data from one side to some other. Some laser scanners accept level compensators built into them to counteract any movement of the scanner during the scan process.

Conoscopic holography [edit]

In a conoscopic system, a laser axle is projected onto the surface and and then the immediate reflection along the same ray-path are put through a conoscopic crystal and projected onto a CCD. The result is a diffraction pattern, that can exist frequency analyzed to determine the distance to the measured surface. The principal advantage with conoscopic holography is that only a unmarried ray-path is needed for measuring, thus giving an opportunity to measure for example the depth of a finely drilled hole.[25]

Hand-held light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation scanners [edit]

Paw-held laser scanners create a 3D image through the triangulation mechanism described higher up: a laser dot or line is projected onto an object from a hand-held device and a sensor (typically a charge-coupled device or position sensitive device) measures the distance to the surface. Data is collected in relation to an internal coordinate organisation and therefore to collect information where the scanner is in motion the position of the scanner must be determined. The position can be determined by the scanner using reference features on the surface being scanned (typically adhesive reflective tabs, but natural features take been also used in inquiry work)[26] [27] or by using an external tracking method. External tracking often takes the form of a laser tracker (to provide the sensor position) with integrated camera (to determine the orientation of the scanner) or a photogrammetric solution using three or more cameras providing the complete six degrees of liberty of the scanner. Both techniques tend to employ infra ruby-red light-emitting diodes fastened to the scanner which are seen by the camera(south) through filters providing resilience to ambient lighting.[28]

Data is collected past a computer and recorded equally information points within three-dimensional space, with processing this can be converted into a triangulated mesh and then a computer-aided design model, often as non-uniform rational B-spline surfaces. Hand-held laser scanners tin combine this data with passive, visible-calorie-free sensors — which capture surface textures and colors — to build (or "reverse engineer") a total 3D model.

Structured light [edit]

Structured-light 3D scanners projection a pattern of light on the discipline and wait at the deformation of the blueprint on the discipline. The design is projected onto the subject using either an LCD projector or other stable light source. A camera, starting time slightly from the design projector, looks at the shape of the pattern and calculates the altitude of every bespeak in the field of view.

Structured-light scanning is nonetheless a very active area of research with many research papers published each year. Perfect maps accept too been proven useful as structured calorie-free patterns that solve the correspondence problem and let for error detection and error correction.[24] [Run into Morano, R., et al. "Structured Light Using Pseudorandom Codes," IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence.

The advantage of structured-light 3D scanners is speed and precision. Instead of scanning one indicate at a fourth dimension, structured light scanners scan multiple points or the entire field of view at once. Scanning an unabridged field of view in a fraction of a second reduces or eliminates the trouble of distortion from motility. Some existing systems are capable of scanning moving objects in real-time.

A real-time scanner using digital fringe project and phase-shifting technique (sure kinds of structured light methods) was adult, to capture, reconstruct, and return high-density details of dynamically deformable objects (such as facial expressions) at twoscore frames per 2d.[29] Recently, some other scanner has been developed. Different patterns can be applied to this system, and the frame charge per unit for capturing and information processing achieves 120 frames per second. It can also scan isolated surfaces, for example two moving hands.[30] Past utilising the binary defocusing technique, speed breakthroughs have been fabricated that could reach hundreds [31] to thousands of frames per second.[32]

Modulated light [edit]

Modulated low-cal 3D scanners smooth a continually changing light at the subject. Usually the light source but cycles its amplitude in a sinusoidal blueprint. A photographic camera detects the reflected light and the amount the pattern is shifted by determines the distance the light travelled. Modulated light too allows the scanner to ignore calorie-free from sources other than a laser, so there is no interference.

Volumetric techniques [edit]

Medical [edit]

Computed tomography (CT) is a medical imaging method which generates a iii-dimensional epitome of the inside of an object from a large series of two-dimensional X-ray images, similarly magnetic resonance imaging is another medical imaging technique that provides much greater contrast betwixt the unlike soft tissues of the body than computed tomography (CT) does, making information technology especially useful in neurological (brain), musculoskeletal, cardiovascular, and oncological (cancer) imaging. These techniques produce a discrete 3D volumetric representation that can be straight visualised, manipulated or converted to traditional 3D surface past mean of isosurface extraction algorithms.

Industrial [edit]

Although nearly mutual in medicine, industrial computed tomography, microtomography and MRI are also used in other fields for acquiring a digital representation of an object and its interior, such as not destructive materials testing, opposite applied science, or studying biological and paleontological specimens.

Non-contact passive [edit]

Passive 3D imaging solutions do not emit any kind of radiation themselves, merely instead rely on detecting reflected ambient radiation. Nearly solutions of this type detect visible low-cal considering it is a readily available ambient radiations. Other types of radiation, such every bit infra red could too exist used. Passive methods can exist very cheap, considering in most cases they do not need particular hardware but simple digital cameras.

  • Stereoscopic systems usually employ two video cameras, slightly apart, looking at the same scene. By analysing the slight differences between the images seen by each camera, information technology is possible to determine the distance at each point in the images. This method is based on the same principles driving human stereoscopic vision[i].
  • Photometric systems ordinarily employ a unmarried photographic camera, merely accept multiple images under varying lighting conditions. These techniques attempt to invert the image formation model in order to recover the surface orientation at each pixel.
  • Silhouette techniques use outlines created from a sequence of photographs around a three-dimensional object confronting a well contrasted background. These silhouettes are extruded and intersected to course the visual hull approximation of the object. With these approaches some concavities of an object (like the interior of a basin) cannot exist detected.

Photogrammetric non-contact passive methods [edit]

Images taken from multiple perspectives such as a fixed photographic camera array tin can be taken of a discipline for a photogrammetric reconstruction pipeline to generate a 3D mesh or bespeak cloud.

Photogrammetry provides reliable information most 3D shapes of concrete objects based on analysis of photographic images. The resulting 3D information is typically provided as a 3D indicate cloud, 3D mesh or 3D points.[33] Mod photogrammetry software applications automatically analyze a large number of digital images for 3D reconstruction, however manual interaction may be required if the software cannot automatically determine the 3D positions of the camera in the images which is an essential step in the reconstruction pipeline. Various software packages are available including PhotoModeler, Geodetic Systems, Autodesk Recap, RealityCapture and Agisoft Metashape (run into comparison of photogrammetry software).

  • Close range photogrammetry typically uses a handheld camera such as a DSLR with a fixed focal length lens to capture images of objects for 3D reconstruction.[34] Subjects include smaller objects such as a edifice facade, vehicles, sculptures, rocks, and shoes.
  • Photographic camera Arrays can be used to generate 3D point clouds or meshes of live objects such as people or pets by synchronizing multiple cameras to photograph a subject from multiple perspectives at the same time for 3D object reconstruction.[35]
  • Wide angle photogrammetry tin can exist used to capture the interior of buildings or enclosed spaces using a wide angle lens photographic camera such as a 360 camera.
  • Aeriform photogrammetry uses aerial images acquired by satellite, commercial shipping or UAV drone to collect images of buildings, structures and terrain for 3D reconstruction into a point cloud or mesh.

Acquisition from acquired sensor data [edit]

Semi-automatic building extraction from lidar information and high-resolution images is too a possibility. Again, this arroyo allows modelling without physically moving towards the location or object.[36] From airborne lidar data, digital surface model (DSM) can be generated and and then the objects higher than the basis are automatically detected from the DSM. Based on general cognition most buildings, geometric characteristics such as size, height and shape information are so used to split up the buildings from other objects. The extracted building outlines are and so simplified using an orthogonal algorithm to obtain improve cartographic quality. Watershed analysis can exist conducted to extract the ridgelines of building roofs. The ridgelines as well as slope information are used to allocate the buildings per type. The buildings are then reconstructed using three parametric edifice models (flat, gabled, hipped).[37]

Acquisition from on-site sensors [edit]

Lidar and other terrestrial laser scanning engineering science[38] offers the fastest, automated manner to collect top or distance information. lidar or laser for height measurement of buildings is becoming very promising.[39] Commercial applications of both airborne lidar and ground laser scanning technology have proven to exist fast and accurate methods for edifice tiptop extraction. The building extraction task is needed to determine edifice locations, footing elevation, orientations, building size, rooftop heights, etc. Most buildings are described to sufficient details in terms of general polyhedra, i.e., their boundaries tin exist represented by a set of planar surfaces and directly lines. Further processing such every bit expressing edifice footprints as polygons is used for data storing in GIS databases.

Using laser scans and images taken from basis level and a bird'southward-eye perspective, Fruh and Zakhor present an approach to automatically create textured 3D urban center models. This approach involves registering and merging the detailed facade models with a complementary airborne model. The airborne modeling procedure generates a half-meter resolution model with a bird's-eye view of the unabridged surface area, containing terrain profile and building tops. Ground-based modeling process results in a detailed model of the building facades. Using the DSM obtained from airborne light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation scans, they localize the acquisition vehicle and register the footing-based facades to the airborne model by means of Monte Carlo localization (MCL). Finally, the ii models are merged with different resolutions to obtain a 3D model.

Using an airborne laser altimeter, Haala, Brenner and Anders combined meridian data with the existing ground plans of buildings. The ground plans of buildings had already been acquired either in analog form by maps and plans or digitally in a 2d GIS. The project was done in lodge to enable an automated data capture by the integration of these different types of information. Afterwards virtual reality city models are generated in the project by texture processing, e.chiliad. by mapping of terrestrial images. The projection demonstrated the feasibility of rapid acquisition of 3D urban GIS. Ground plans proved are another very important source of information for 3D building reconstruction. Compared to results of automatic procedures, these ground plans proved more reliable since they contain aggregated information which has been made explicit past man interpretation. For this reason, ground plans, tin considerably reduce costs in a reconstruction project. An example of existing basis plan data usable in building reconstruction is the Digital Cadastral map, which provides information on the distribution of holding, including the borders of all agricultural areas and the ground plans of existing buildings. Additionally information as street names and the usage of buildings (due east.thou. garage, residential edifice, part block, industrial building, church) is provided in the form of text symbols. At the moment the Digital Cadastral map is built upward every bit a database covering an expanse, mainly composed by digitizing preexisting maps or plans.

Cost [edit]

  • Terrestrial light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation scan devices (pulse or phase devices) + processing software more often than not offset at a price of €150,000. Some less precise devices (as the Trimble VX) cost around €75,000.
  • Terrestrial lidar systems cost effectually €300,000.
  • Systems using regular still cameras mounted on RC helicopters (Photogrammetry) are also possible, and cost around €25,000. Systems that utilize nevertheless cameras with balloons are even cheaper (around €ii,500), but require additional manual processing. As the manual processing takes around 1 month of labor for every day of taking pictures, this is however an expensive solution in the long run.
  • Obtaining satellite images is too an expensive try. High resolution stereo images (0.5 m resolution) cost around €11,000. Image satellites include Quikbird, Ikonos. Loftier resolution monoscopic images cost effectually €5,500. Somewhat lower resolution images (due east.g. from the CORONA satellite; with a ii m resolution) price effectually €one,000 per 2 images. Notation that Google Earth images are too low in resolution to make an accurate 3D model.[xl]

Reconstruction [edit]

From point clouds [edit]

The point clouds produced by 3D scanners and 3D imaging can be used directly for measurement and visualisation in the architecture and construction world.

From models [edit]

Most applications, however, use instead polygonal 3D models, NURBS surface models, or editable feature-based CAD models (aka solid models).

  • Polygon mesh models: In a polygonal representation of a shape, a curved surface is modeled as many small faceted flat surfaces (think of a sphere modeled every bit a disco ball). Polygon models—as well called Mesh models, are useful for visualisation, for some CAM (i.e., machining), simply are generally "heavy" ( i.e., very large data sets), and are relatively un-editable in this form. Reconstruction to polygonal model involves finding and connecting next points with straight lines in order to create a continuous surface. Many applications, both free and nonfree, are bachelor for this purpose (e.g. GigaMesh, MeshLab, PointCab, kubit PointCloud for AutoCAD, Reconstructor, imagemodel, PolyWorks, Rapidform, Geomagic, Imageware, Rhinoceros 3D etc.).
  • Surface models: The next level of sophistication in modeling involves using a quilt of curved surface patches to model the shape. These might be NURBS, TSplines or other curved representations of curved topology. Using NURBS, the spherical shape becomes a true mathematical sphere. Some applications offer patch layout past hand simply the all-time in form offer both automated patch layout and transmission layout. These patches accept the advantage of existence lighter and more manipulable when exported to CAD. Surface models are somewhat editable, just only in a sculptural sense of pushing and pulling to deform the surface. This representation lends itself well to modelling organic and artistic shapes. Providers of surface modellers include Rapidform, Geomagic, Rhino 3D, Maya, T Splines etc.
  • Solid CAD models: From an engineering/manufacturing perspective, the ultimate representation of a digitised shape is the editable, parametric CAD model. In CAD, the sphere is described by parametric features which are hands edited past irresolute a value (e.g., centre point and radius).

These CAD models describe not but the envelope or shape of the object, only CAD models also embody the "design intent" (i.due east., critical features and their relationship to other features). An example of blueprint intent not evident in the shape alone might be a brake pulsate'southward lug bolts, which must exist concentric with the pigsty in the centre of the pulsate. This cognition would bulldoze the sequence and method of creating the CAD model; a designer with an awareness of this human relationship would not design the lug bolts referenced to the outside bore, simply instead, to the heart. A modeler creating a CAD model will want to include both Shape and blueprint intent in the complete CAD model.

Vendors offer different approaches to getting to the parametric CAD model. Some export the NURBS surfaces and go out it to the CAD designer to complete the model in CAD (due east.g., Geomagic, Imageware, Rhino 3D). Others use the scan data to create an editable and verifiable characteristic based model that is imported into CAD with full characteristic tree intact, yielding a consummate, native CAD model, capturing both shape and design intent (east.grand. Geomagic, Rapidform). For instance, the market offers various plug-ins for established CAD-programs, such as SolidWorks. Xtract3D, DezignWorks and Geomagic for SolidWorks permit manipulating a 3D scan direct inside SolidWorks. Still other CAD applications are robust enough to manipulate limited points or polygon models inside the CAD environment (due east.thou., CATIA, AutoCAD, Revit).

From a set of second slices [edit]

3D reconstruction of the brain and eyeballs from CT scanned DICOM images. In this paradigm, areas with the density of os or air were made transparent, and the slices stacked upwardly in an approximate free-space alignment. The outer band of material around the brain are the soft tissues of pare and muscle on the exterior of the skull. A blackness box encloses the slices to provide the black background. Since these are but 2D images stacked up, when viewed on edge the slices disappear since they have effectively null thickness. Each DICOM scan represents about v mm of material averaged into a sparse piece.

CT, industrial CT, MRI, or micro-CT scanners do not produce point clouds but a set of 2D slices (each termed a "tomogram") which are then 'stacked together' to produce a 3D representation. There are several ways to do this depending on the output required:

  • Volume rendering: Different parts of an object unremarkably have different threshold values or greyscale densities. From this, a three-dimensional model can be constructed and displayed on screen. Multiple models can exist constructed from various thresholds, assuasive different colours to stand for each component of the object. Book rendering is usually merely used for visualisation of the scanned object.
  • Epitome partitioning: Where different structures take similar threshold/greyscale values, it tin can become incommunicable to separate them simply past adjusting volume rendering parameters. The solution is chosen segmentation, a manual or automatic procedure that can remove the unwanted structures from the paradigm. Epitome sectionalization software usually allows export of the segmented structures in CAD or STL format for further manipulation.
  • Paradigm-based meshing: When using 3D image information for computational analysis (e.g. CFD and FEA), just segmenting the information and meshing from CAD tin can get time-consuming, and virtually intractable for the complex topologies typical of prototype data. The solution is chosen image-based meshing, an automatic process of generating an accurate and realistic geometrical description of the browse information.

From light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation scans [edit]

Laser scanning describes the full general method to sample or scan a surface using laser applied science. Several areas of application exist that mainly differ in the power of the lasers that are used, and in the results of the scanning process. Depression laser power is used when the scanned surface doesn't have to exist influenced, e.thousand. when information technology only has to exist digitised. Confocal or 3D laser scanning are methods to get data well-nigh the scanned surface. Some other depression-power application uses structured low-cal projection systems for solar jail cell flatness metrology,[41] enabling stress calculation throughout in backlog of 2000 wafers per 60 minutes.[42]

The laser ability used for laser scanning equipment in industrial applications is typically less than 1W. The power level is usually on the gild of 200 mW or less merely sometimes more.

From photographs [edit]

3D data conquering and object reconstruction tin be performed using stereo image pairs. Stereo photogrammetry or photogrammetry based on a block of overlapped images is the primary approach for 3D mapping and object reconstruction using 2D images. Close-range photogrammetry has as well matured to the level where cameras or digital cameras tin be used to capture the close-look images of objects, due east.g., buildings, and reconstruct them using the very same theory every bit the aerial photogrammetry. An example of software which could do this is Vexcel FotoG 5.[43] [44] This software has now been replaced past Vexcel GeoSynth.[45] Another similar software program is Microsoft Photosynth.[46] [47]

A semi-automatic method for acquiring 3D topologically structured data from 2D aeriform stereo images has been presented by Sisi Zlatanova.[48] The procedure involves the manual digitizing of a number of points necessary for automatically reconstructing the 3D objects. Each reconstructed object is validated past superimposition of its wire frame graphics in the stereo model. The topologically structured 3D data is stored in a database and are also used for visualization of the objects. Notable software used for 3D data conquering using 2nd images include eastward.g. Agisoft Metashape,[49] RealityCapture,[l] and ENSAIS Technology College TIPHON (Traitement d'Image et PHOtogrammétrie Numérique).[51]

A method for semi-automatic building extraction together with a concept for storing building models aslope terrain and other topographic information in a topographical data arrangement has been developed by Franz Rottensteiner. His approach was based on the integration of building parameter estimations into the photogrammetry procedure applying a hybrid modeling scheme. Buildings are decomposed into a set of uncomplicated primitives that are reconstructed individually and are then combined by Boolean operators. The internal data construction of both the primitives and the compound building models are based on the boundary representation methods[52] [53]

Multiple images are used in Zeng's approach to surface reconstruction from multiple images. A central idea is to explore the integration of both 3D stereo data and 2d calibrated images. This arroyo is motivated by the fact that merely robust and accurate feature points that survived the geometry scrutiny of multiple images are reconstructed in space. The density insufficiency and the inevitable holes in the stereo data should then be filled in by using information from multiple images. The thought is thus to beginning construct small surface patches from stereo points, then to progressively propagate merely reliable patches in their neighborhood from images into the whole surface using a all-time-outset strategy. The problem thus reduces to searching for an optimal local surface patch going through a given set of stereo points from images.

Multi-spectral images are also used for 3D building detection. The offset and last pulse data and the normalized difference vegetation index are used in the process.[54]

New measurement techniques are also employed to obtain measurements of and betwixt objects from single images by using the projection, or the shadow as well every bit their combination. This engineering is gaining attention given its fast processing time, and far lower cost than stereo measurements.[ citation needed ]

Applications [edit]

Space Experiments [edit]

Space rock scans for the European Space Agency[55] [56]

Construction industry and civil engineering [edit]

  • Robotic control: e.m. a laser scanner may role as the "heart" of a robot.[57] [58]
  • As-congenital drawings of bridges, industrial plants, and monuments
  • Documentation of historical sites[59]
  • Site modelling and lay outing
  • Quality control
  • Quantity surveys
  • Payload monitoring [60]
  • Freeway redesign
  • Establishing a demote marker of pre-existing shape/country in order to detect structural changes resulting from exposure to extreme loadings such equally convulsion, vessel/truck affect or fire.
  • Create GIS (geographic information system) maps[61] and geomatics.
  • Subsurface laser scanning in mines and karst voids.[62]
  • Forensic documentation[63]

Design process [edit]

  • Increasing accuracy working with circuitous parts and shapes,
  • Coordinating product design using parts from multiple sources,
  • Updating old CD scans with those from more than current technology,
  • Replacing missing or older parts,
  • Creating cost savings by allowing as-built blueprint services, for example in automotive manufacturing plants,
  • "Bringing the establish to the engineers" with web shared scans, and
  • Saving travel costs.

Entertainment [edit]

3D scanners are used by the entertainment industry to create digital 3D models for movies, video games and leisure purposes.[64] They are heavily utilized in virtual cinematography. In cases where a real-earth equivalent of a model exists, it is much faster to scan the existent-earth object than to manually create a model using 3D modeling software. Frequently, artists sculpt physical models of what they want and scan them into digital form rather than direct creating digital models on a computer.

3D photography [edit]

3D selfie in 1:20 scale printed by Shapeways using gypsum-based printing, created by Madurodam miniature park from 2d pictures taken at its Fantasitron photo berth.

3D scanners are evolving for the apply of cameras to correspond 3D objects in an accurate style.[65] Companies are emerging since 2010 that create 3D portraits of people (3D figurines or 3D selfie).

An augmented reality carte du jour for the Madrid restaurant chain 80 Degrees[66]

Law enforcement [edit]

3D laser scanning is used by the law enforcement agencies around the world. 3D models are used for on-site documentation of:[67]

  • Crime scenes
  • Bullet trajectories
  • Bloodstain blueprint analysis
  • Accident reconstruction
  • Bombings
  • Plane crashes, and more

Reverse engineering [edit]

Reverse engineering of a mechanical component requires a precise digital model of the objects to exist reproduced. Rather than a set of points a precise digital model tin can be represented by a polygon mesh, a set of apartment or curved NURBS surfaces, or ideally for mechanical components, a CAD solid model. A 3D scanner tin can be used to digitise free-class or gradually changing shaped components also as prismatic geometries whereas a coordinate measuring motorcar is ordinarily used merely to determine simple dimensions of a highly prismatic model. These data points are then candy to create a usable digital model, commonly using specialized contrary engineering software.

Existent estate [edit]

Land or buildings can be scanned into a 3D model, which allows buyers to tour and audit the holding remotely, anywhere, without having to be nowadays at the belongings.[68] There is already at least 1 company providing 3D-scanned virtual real estate tours.[69] A typical virtual tour Archived 2017-04-27 at the Wayback Motorcar would consist of dollhouse view,[70] inside view, as well as a floor program.

Virtual/remote tourism [edit]

The environment at a identify of interest can be captured and converted into a 3D model. This model can so be explored by the public, either through a VR interface or a traditional "2D" interface. This allows the user to explore locations which are inconvenient for travel.[71] A group of history students at Vancouver iTech Preparatory Middle Schoolhouse created a Virtual Museum by 3D Scanning more than 100 artifacts.[72]

Cultural heritage [edit]

There take been many inquiry projects undertaken via the scanning of historical sites and artifacts both for documentation and analysis purposes.[73]

The combined apply of 3D scanning and 3D printing technologies allows the replication of real objects without the use of traditional plaster casting techniques, that in many cases can be too invasive for being performed on precious or frail cultural heritage artifacts.[74] In an example of a typical application scenario, a gargoyle model was digitally acquired using a 3D scanner and the produced 3D data was processed using MeshLab. The resulting digital 3D model was fed to a rapid prototyping car to create a real resin replica of the original object.

Creation of 3D models for Museums and Archaeological artifacts[75] [76] [77]

Michelangelo [edit]

In 1999, two different research groups started scanning Michelangelo's statues. Stanford University with a group led past Marc Levoy[78] used a custom laser triangulation scanner congenital by Cyberware to scan Michelangelo's statues in Florence, notably the David, the Prigioni and the iv statues in The Medici Chapel. The scans produced a data point density of one sample per 0.25 mm, detailed enough to encounter Michelangelo'southward chisel marks. These detailed scans produced a big amount of information (upward to 32 gigabytes) and processing the data from his scans took v months. Approximately in the same flow a inquiry group from IBM, led by H. Rushmeier and F. Bernardini scanned the Pietà of Florence acquiring both geometric and colour details. The digital model, event of the Stanford scanning campaign, was thoroughly used in the 2004 subsequent restoration of the statue.[79]

Monticello [edit]

In 2002, David Luebke, et al. scanned Thomas Jefferson's Monticello.[80] A commercial time of flight laser scanner, the DeltaSphere 3000, was used. The scanner information was subsequently combined with colour information from digital photographs to create the Virtual Monticello, and the Jefferson's Chiffonier exhibits in the New Orleans Museum of Art in 2003. The Virtual Monticello showroom simulated a window looking into Jefferson's Library. The exhibit consisted of a rear projection display on a wall and a pair of stereo glasses for the viewer. The glasses, combined with polarised projectors, provided a 3D result. Position tracking hardware on the spectacles allowed the display to adapt as the viewer moves around, creating the illusion that the display is really a hole in the wall looking into Jefferson'south Library. The Jefferson'southward Cabinet showroom was a bulwark stereogram (essentially a non-active hologram that appears unlike from different angles) of Jefferson's Cabinet.

Cuneiform tablets [edit]

The commencement 3D models of cuneiform tablets were acquired in Germany in 2000.[81] In 2003 the so-called Digital Hammurabi projection acquired cuneiform tablets with a light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation triangulation scanner using a regular grid pattern having a resolution of 0.025 mm (0.00098 in).[82] With the use of high-resolution 3D-scanners by the Heidelberg University for tablet acquisition in 2009 the development of the GigaMesh Software Framework began to visualize and extract cuneiform characters from 3D-models.[83] It was used to process ca. 2.000 3D-digitized tablets of the Hilprecht Collection in Jena to create an Open Access benchmark dataset[84] and an annotated collection[85] of 3D-models of tablets freely bachelor under CC Past licenses.[86]

Kasubi Tombs [edit]

A 2009 CyArk 3D scanning project at Uganda'south historic Kasubi Tombs, a UNESCO Globe Heritage Site, using a Leica HDS 4500, produced detailed architectural models of Muzibu Azaala Mpanga, the main building at the complex and tomb of the Kabakas (Kings) of Republic of uganda. A burn down on March 16, 2010, burned down much of the Muzibu Azaala Mpanga structure, and reconstruction work is likely to lean heavily upon the dataset produced by the 3D scan mission.[87]

"Plastico di Roma antica" [edit]

In 2005, Gabriele Guidi, et al. scanned the "Plastico di Roma antica",[88] a model of Rome created in the last century. Neither the triangulation method, nor the time of flight method satisfied the requirements of this projection because the detail to be scanned was both large and contained small details. They plant though, that a modulated calorie-free scanner was able to provide both the ability to scan an object the size of the model and the accuracy that was needed. The modulated light scanner was supplemented by a triangulation scanner which was used to browse some parts of the model.

Other projects [edit]

The 3D Encounters Project at the Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology aims to utilise 3D laser scanning to create a loftier quality 3D prototype library of artefacts and enable digital travelling exhibitions of fragile Egyptian artefacts, English Heritage has investigated the utilize of 3D light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation scanning for a wide range of applications to gain archaeological and status information, and the National Conservation Centre in Liverpool has besides produced 3D laser scans on committee, including portable object and in situ scans of archaeological sites.[89] The Smithsonian Institution has a project called Smithsonian X 3D notable for the breadth of types of 3D objects they are attempting to scan. These include small objects such as insects and flowers, to human sized objects such equally Amelia Earhart'south Flight Suit to room sized objects such as the Gunboat Philadelphia to historic sites such every bit Liang Bua in Republic of indonesia. As well of note the data from these scans is being made available to the public for free and downloadable in several data formats.

Medical CAD/CAM [edit]

3D scanners are used to capture the 3D shape of a patient in orthotics and dentistry. Information technology gradually supplants tedious plaster cast. CAD/CAM software are then used to design and manufacture the orthosis, prosthesis or dental implants.

Many Chairside dental CAD/CAM systems and Dental Laboratory CAD/CAM systems utilise 3D Scanner technologies to capture the 3D surface of a dental preparation (either in vivo or in vitro), in guild to produce a restoration digitally using CAD software and ultimately produce the final restoration using a CAM engineering science (such every bit a CNC milling car, or 3D printer). The chairside systems are designed to facilitate the 3D scanning of a preparation in vivo and produce the restoration (such as a Crown, Onlay, Inlay or Veneer).

Cosmos of 3D models for Anatomy and Biological science education[90] [91] and cadaver models for educational neurosurgical simulations.[92]

Quality assurance and industrial metrology [edit]

The digitalisation of real-world objects is of vital importance in diverse awarding domains. This method is especially applied in industrial quality assurance to measure the geometric dimension accuracy. Industrial processes such every bit assembly are circuitous, highly automated and typically based on CAD (computer-aided design) data. The trouble is that the aforementioned degree of automation is as well required for quality balls. Information technology is, for example, a very complex task to assemble a mod car, since it consists of many parts that must fit together at the very end of the production line. The optimal performance of this procedure is guaranteed past quality balls systems. Especially the geometry of the metal parts must be checked in order to assure that they have the right dimensions, fit together and finally work reliably.

Within highly automated processes, the resulting geometric measures are transferred to machines that industry the desired objects. Due to mechanical uncertainties and abrasions, the event may differ from its digital nominal. In order to automatically capture and evaluate these deviations, the manufactured part must exist digitised also. For this purpose, 3D scanners are applied to generate point samples from the object's surface which are finally compared against the nominal data.[93]

The process of comparing 3D data confronting a CAD model is referred to as CAD-Compare, and can be a useful technique for applications such as determining wear patterns on moulds and tooling, determining accurateness of last build, analysing gap and flush, or analysing highly complex sculpted surfaces. At nowadays, light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation triangulation scanners, structured calorie-free and contact scanning are the predominant technologies employed for industrial purposes, with contact scanning remaining the slowest, merely overall about accurate pick. Notwithstanding, 3D scanning technology offers distinct advantages compared to traditional touch probe measurements. White-light or light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation scanners accurately digitize objects all around, capturing fine details and freeform surfaces without reference points or spray. The entire surface is covered at record speed without the take chances of damaging the part. Graphic comparison charts illustrate geometric deviations of full object level, providing deeper insights into potential causes.[94] [95]

Circumvention of shipping costs and international import/export tariffs [edit]

3D scanning can be used in conjunction with 3D press technology to virtually teleport sure object beyond distances without the need of aircraft them and in some cases incurring import/export tariffs. For example, a plastic object tin be 3D-scanned in the U.s.a., the files can be sent off to a 3D-printing facility over in Germany where the object is replicated, effectively teleporting the object across the globe. In the future, as 3D scanning and 3D printing technologies become more and more prevalent, governments around the globe will demand to reconsider and rewrite trade agreements and international laws.

Object reconstruction [edit]

After the data has been collected, the acquired (and sometimes already processed) data from images or sensors needs to be reconstructed. This may be done in the same plan or in some cases, the 3D data needs to exist exported and imported into some other program for further refining, and/or to add together boosted data. Such boosted data could be gps-location information, ... Also, after the reconstruction, the data might exist directly implemented into a local (GIS) map[96] [97] or a worldwide map such every bit Google World.

Software [edit]

Several software packages are used in which the acquired (and sometimes already processed) data from images or sensors is imported. Notable software packages include:[98]

  • Qlone
  • 3DF Zephyr
  • Canoma
  • Leica Photogrammetry Suite
  • MeshLab
  • MountainsMap SEM (microscopy applications only)
  • PhotoModeler
  • SketchUp
  • tomviz

See as well [edit]

  • 3D computer graphics software
  • 3D press
  • 3D reconstruction
  • 3D selfie
  • Angle-sensitive pixel
  • Depth map
  • Digitization
  • Epipolar geometry
  • Full body scanner
  • Prototype reconstruction
  • Lite-field camera
  • Photogrammetry
  • Range imaging
  • Remote sensing
  • Structured-light 3D scanner
  • Thingiverse

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3d_scanning

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